The 'Brain' of 'Brains and Brawn' with Dr. Kezele MD

Hi, I'm Terri Camarsella here on behalf of Creation Fellowship Santee. We're a group of friends who love to learn about our Creator God and believe that the Bible, when read properly, rules out the possibility of long ages.

We met for 10 years at the Creation and Earth History Museum in Santee, California. Then, and online, our goal is to equip believers to defend their faith. You can find over four years worth of our virtually there archives by visiting tinyurl .com forward slash cfs archives.

Dr. Joseph Cazell earned his medical degree at the College of Medicine at the University of Arizona and is currently an assistant biology professor at Arizona Christian University. Some of the courses he has taught over the years include biology, anatomy, and physiology, cell and molecular biology, microbiology, human genetics, and ecology.

Not only is he well-versed in the sciences, but Joseph is also fluent in Spanish and Russian. Having heard the clear call of God on his life to teach from the biblical creation perspective, Dr. Cazell is also a biblical creationist and a Logos Research Associate.

This week, we're excited to hear his expert opinion on the human brain, which is a part of his talk entitled Brains and Brawn. And with that, I'm going to go ahead and turn it over to Dr. Cazell.

Thank you so much, Terri. So, you're ready for me to hit the share button? All right, and we put it on? Yes, please do. Which one, either one, the full screen or the part? Do the application one, yeah.

Okay, all right. So, now, time to get into the talk itself. Yes. And, okay, that button is not visible right now,.

So I guess I need to hit the alt tab? Yes, go ahead and hit the alt tab to go back to the.

PowerPoint. Okay, maybe if I just double click here, there we go. Okay. Okay, and you can hit the slideshow play button then. Yeah, okay, folks, thank you so much for the invitation to come and speak here.

For you folks based in San Diego, it's a great place to be. I love going there in the summer, get out of our hot conditions in Arizona. That's why we, you guys, suffer through the invasion of the zonies.

The Brain's Size, Synapses, and Energy Use

And so, let's get to the brain here. Very interesting things here. The brain grows in its physical size until the age of eight, and at that point, it reaches its full size. And then, after that, you can see that the proportion of the head to the torso changes eventually into the adult ratio there, as the person finishes gaining their stature.

So, the brain is finished growing in size by age eight. However, the synapses, the connections inside, really aren't finished until around age 24. So, there's still that form of maturation that goes on from age eight to 24.

So, that's why we can truthfully say we have brainless teenagers. So, this is a picture here showing these various representation here of the synapses. That's the junction between nerve and nerve, or nerve and muscle, or nerve and gland.

So, the brain weighs about three pounds, roughly, which is about one and a half to two percent of a person's body weight. And it burns up, or metabolizes, 20 of the basal energy expenditure. In plain English, this means the energy just to exist, to breathe, to have the heartbeat, not doing anything, zero activity, not even digesting food.

So, of that basal energy expenditure, the brain uses 20%. That's amazing. So, about two percent of the body's weight, or mass, uses 20 of the energy. So, here is the outline of the things we're going to be talking about.

Design, Regionalization, and the Major Brain Cell Types

We'll start with perfect optimization, meaning the best arrangement of things possible. So, engineers and electricians use the principle called save wire. So, in other words, let's have the minimum amount of length between connections, both at local levels and at higher levels, at all levels throughout the brain.

So, the brain does employ the same principle as the electricians and engineers. Well, of course, this implies design, and that implies a designer. So, this is a graph showing mathematical relationships of the distribution of nerves, and this is a pattern that exists in other settings as well.

So, it's very interesting that these precise mathematical relationships apply to the structural issues in the brain. And there's a quote here, and this is a convenient and useful model for measurements in exact and engineering sciences, as well as medicine, economics, and other topics.

So, it's, I think, very interesting. This follows the very same pattern as these other professions, which require precision. And so, there is this regionalization of various functions, and this was established before the era of scans by finding out on autopsy what part was damaged in this person who had a particular problem.

So, if they had a problem with speech, damage was found in that area you see in pink, lower down to the left, and so on with this various regions. So, there is compartmentalization of this specialization of functions, as you see here.

For example, in the very back part of the brain, the posterior part, which is on the right-hand side of the screen, you see vision there. And that's where the information taken in by the eyes is dealt with.

It's processed so that we can make sense out of what the eyes pick up. And the same for these other senses and functions here. The central sulcus, this is a trough. A sulcus is a trough that separates the major motor area controlling our muscles, our skeletal muscles, the muscles that we will to use, that we make decisions to use, versus the sensory regions on the back side of the trough, the posterior side of the trough.

You see there that yellow area as opposed to the pink area. There are five long-understood categories of cells in the brain, and there are now many more that have been more recently discovered. But these five basic ones, we'll go through these in turn.

Letter A, that you see at the bottom, the microglial cell, this refers to the immune system representative in the central nervous system in the brain and spinal cord. And so, these are the cells that perform the same function that certain types of white cells perform in the tissues and in the blood, in dealing with stuff that ought not to be there.

Then, letter B refers to oligodendrocytes. Oligo means few. Dendro refers to trees and branching. Cyte means cell. So, an oligodendrocyte is a cell that has few branches, because its job is not to convey information from cell to cell.

Rather, its job is to produce this jelly roll-shaped insulation that you see wrapped around the part that's labeled the axon, which is an extension of the neuron, which you see that large kind of pale orange-ish structure with the lavender purple nucleus there that's prominent.

So, the oligodendrocytes produce the insulation around the nerves so that nerves do not have short circuits among them. So, this provides the same function as do rubber or plastic coatings on copper wires in our buildings, for example, so that short circuits don't occur.

Letter C, you see towards the right, is called an astrocyte, and that would be star cell. It looks like a star. It has lots of branches, and its job is to convey what should get into the brain from the circulatory system.

So, you see the capillary labeled there at the far top right, and so the astrocyte is the gatekeeper that allows what's supposed to get into the brain. So, it shuttles the materials from the circulatory system to the neurons so they can receive nutrients, oxygen, and some other messenger-type molecules.

Collectively, the sum total of the astrocytes are called the blood-brain barrier, and so that's that protective system that guards what gets to and into the neurons. D, the ependymal cells are lining the fluid-filled cavities that are within the brain, which are called ventricles, the same word we use for the bottom half of the heart.

The word ventricle actually means belly. So, in the heart, they're the bottom or the belly of the heart. In the brain, they're in the belly or more of the center of the brain. These ependymal cells secrete the fluid that protects and bathes and nourishes cells, and bathes and protects the brain so that it acts as shock-absorbent fluid that is placed between the brain itself and the skull, so that when the brain, the skull gets struck, that is providing some protection there to soften the blow, absorb the blow.

Now, these ependymal cells are extended into the ventricles as they secrete the fluid that's produced there. Now, they're named ependymal cells. Ladies who wear something on a chain around their neck wear what we call pendants.

Pendants hang. If something is depending, it is hanging from, whether it be a decision or something physical. Epending means to hang out. These cells hang out into the ventricles. So, when our teenagers or anybody else are hanging out at the mall, they are epending.

All right, so that's the category of cells on this slide. The neurons themselves are what do the work of thinking, processing, and making decisions. Also, these astrocytes have an additional task of orchestrating new synapses, coordinating new connections that are made.

Then, one of the newer types of cells that have been found is called a boundary cell, and we'll talk more about this here. These boundary cells are able to mark the beginning of an event that is to be remembered and the end of that event that is to be remembered.

And so, think of it as like where an editor would clip a film strip to mark the beginning and end of a particular event. So, that's what the boundary cell does. Another type of neuron that's fairly recently found is called a rose hip neuron.

Because of the shape, it has the same shape as these rose hips on rose bushes. And this involves connections among the neurons so that the synapses convey information from one nerve to another. And these act in an inhibitory fashion to regulate that flow of information.

So, just like with many other systems in the body, there are systems that make things go. And then, with those systems, there are provisions to put brakes on things, to control things, so that there's a balance in activity.

Male and Female Brain Differences from Genesis 1:27

Also, especially apropos for today, is that studying the brain has shown that there are definite differences in brain structure between male and female. We are literally wired differently. And I do mean quite literally.

So, with all this stuff going on today, with people deciding that maybe on odd number Tuesday, with the full moon, they want to be a male, and then the next Wednesday, facing east, they want to be female or something, that it's totally ridiculous.

We are truly wired to be either male or female. And this goes all the way down to the cellular level as well. So, there's no arguing with this. So, we go back to Genesis 127. So, God created mankind in his own image.

In the male and female, he created them. So, it's crystal clear here as to what the situation is. So, we do, though, have that women are from Venus and men are from Mars. Well, we do think differently.

We're wired to think differently. But that's why we are meant to be paired off, male and female, to complement each other. Because ladies will pick up things that the men miss, and vice versa. Because of the different way that we perceive things, and the different ways that we process these things.

Synaptic Transmission and the Brain's Computational Power

Okay, here is a section on the vast computational power of the brain. So, this is showing a closer-up diagram of the connection of one nerve with the second nerve. So, pre-synaptic means before the junction.

Post-synaptic means after the junction. And the synapse is the gap that creates the junction there, the gap between the two nerves, or between a nerve and a muscle, or nerve and cell. So, what we see here, then, is the yellow arrow representing the electrical signal coming down the membrane along that long axon, that long part of the neuron.

And then, it hits a channel, a gate, that responds to that electrical signal. So, it's called voltage-gated. And when that signal triggers that gate, it allows for a great influx of calcium to enter the end of the neuron there.

And that calcium affects these vesicles, causing them to migrate to the very end, and then to open up and dump their contents into that gap, that synapse between the two nerves. And those contents are the messengers, the chemical messengers, that carry the message for the second nerve, then, to fire off.

And we call these neurotransmitters, these molecules. And there are several different types that are used in our bodies, in different types of synapses, different types of portions of the nervous system.

So, the gap itself is called the cleft, the synaptic cleft. And then, on the second cell, there are the receptors for these neurotransmitters. And they are quite specific, only that particular molecule will trigger that receptor.

So, there are roughly about a thousand of these receptors in each connection between the two nerves. And so, these can be very well thought of as microprocessors, molecular microprocessors. And we'll come back to this point in a second.

So, here again is the diagram of the total nerve. There's, on the far left part, is where there's the nucleus of the cell. With all those connections, you see those blue extensions, those dendrites, the branches, that are connecting with a bunch of other nerves to share information and then to be able to process it.

And then, the axon is that long channel through which the information is conveyed to a distant part of the body. And then, you see there at the right hand, the connection there with the synapses that we just showed you up above here, with that nerve, with the subsequent either nerve, gland, or muscle.

These nerves, these axons, can be and are quite long because they go from the brain to the different portions of the spinal cord. So, some of them are three feet or longer in length, and then from the spinal cord down to the end of our tips of our fingers and our toes.

So, they can be very, very long. So, it's estimated that there are about 200 billion of these neurons, the workhorses that do the computing and calculating in the brain, and figure that there are hundreds of trillions of synapses of connections of each of all of these nerves collectively, and that each particular synapse has about a thousand molecular microprocessors.

So, you put all these numbers together, multiply them all together, and you can see it's an incredibly huge number of these microprocessors all together. And that's how the brain has such vast computational power.

And so, here's an analogy showing with the internet there, that's supposed to represent the internet, and then the global nature of the internet there, you can see the lights lighting up North and South America there, that one human brain has more computational power than all that stuff represented there in the internet there.

We have phenomenal computational power. Well, where is this located? Well, in the gray matter, the very superficial part of the surface of the brain is where these neurons are doing their work. And it's gray as opposed to white, because the white part is where those axons, those long connecting parts of the nerves, not synapses, but just those very long parts that get the nerve from one place to another place, are sheathed in that insulating material, the myelin sheath, and that's white in color, so that's why there's that white matter, because there everything is insulated so that short circuits do not occur.

And so, here again, you see some numbers with huge amounts of numbers of what's going on in just one tiny little bit. It says a cubic millimeter. A cubic millimeter. Well, there's a thousand millimeters in a meter.

There are two and a half centimeters in an inch, so that means there's 250, I'm sorry, 25 millimeters in an inch. So, 1 25th of an inch cubed contains these huge numbers of these structures, and that's just the tiniest little portion.

And so, you see here that this occupies about 460 ,000 cubic millimeters. It's amazing. It's phenomenal. And so, here's trying to represent with these various colors, these various layers in the brain, as the nerves are traversing the tissue.

Well, here's an article written in a secular journal. Evolution wired human brains to act like supercomputers. Hmm. So, they're imparting awareness and volition and ability to make decisions on the part of evolution, which is a non-entity.

So, you know, it's so sad that such lack of logic is used to go to such great lengths to try and explain how things came into being apart from God. And by that, I always mean the God of the Bible. Okay.

Scientists have discovered that the human brain inherently uses Bayesian inference. What in the world is that? It's a statistical method combining what you already know with what you're learning. So, adding new stuff to what you already know.

So, to try and make this pretty straightforward, here's an intelligent person who already has a certain body of data, already has a certain amount of information. New information is coming in to be added to what's already known.

So, this business of Bayesian inference is how we're able to integrate the new stuff into what we already know in the database that already exists. So, that's what that's referring to. And there are these big mathematical formulas that deal with this, and it shows that, indeed, this is how our brain works as well.

So, we have a butterfly, we have knowledge about this butterfly, and then we see something new that comes along. So, here we have a beautiful hummingbird, and we can see that there are differences. Yes, they both fly, but the pattern of the wings beating is totally different among the two critters, or between the two critters.

So, there are lots of things that we could be adding in here to our new information. And so, that uses this Bayesian method of computing things, integrating new information. This diagram here is trying to just make the point that we have pre-existing knowledge.

So, here's the first bit, then the second bit, and the third, and so on. So, that new information is being added as we experience new things, read new things, etc., as is what's going on with you all right now.

Well, I think this is the most appropriate quote here from Romans 1, 22 and 25, "...professing to be wise, they became fools.". Well, I have particular interest in this portion of this verse, because professors, many, many, many professors around the world and in this country, profess to be wise, yet they teach the lie of evolution.

And these are very smart, intelligent people. They're not stupid. But this shows that smarts are not the same as wisdom, because they're exchanging the truth of God for the lie, and worshiping and serving the creature, making themselves God, rather than the Creator, who is blessed forever, and definitely, amen.

Processing Speed, Energy Efficiency, and Memory Storage

What about phenomenal processing speed? It was originally thought that all processing took place in the soma, the body, the part of that neuron that surrounds the nucleus, that yellow part there in the diagram.

Well, we now know that's not true, that there's also processing that occurs in these dendrites, these blue extensions, and that blue dot that appeared is representing the nucleus in that soma, the body, the main part of the cell.

So, in the soma itself, the electrical activity is an all-or-nothing spike, just like a digital signal, the one or zero, yes or no. But there's a whole lot more going on in those dendrites, in those branches, which are connecting with so many thousands and zillions of other nerve cells.

There is also computational activity going on there as well, and it's been determined that that's 10 times greater than what goes on in the main body of that cell as well. So, that's why we have such phenomenal processing speed.

So now, they use the term warp speed, kind of like from Star Trek, saying that our computational speed is about 100 times faster than we previously thought was the case. Optimal energy efficiency, got to take into account the energy expended.

So, as I said earlier, at just basal energy level, just to exist, just to sit there, or actually just to lie there, do nothing, just breathe, have the heartbeat pumping the blood through the body, requires 20 of the total energy the body is using, and it's about, the brain itself needs about 10 watts to function.

Okay, so there's one of those real small light bulbs that uses 10 watts. It's the light bulb that we use in these night lights that we put in stairways, and halls, and bathrooms, those types of things, those small little small lights.

They're also the same size as the Christmas tree lights we used to use, not the really big ones, and not those tiny little dinky things now. So, a robot brain, built by man, with the same capacity as the human brain, it's been calculated that if such a brain were built, it would require at least 10 megawatts, instead of 10 watts, 10 megawatts.

So, that would be a thousand times greater amount of energy, and 10 megawatts are the output of a small hydroelectric dam. Okay, so that's a thousand times greater than what the human brain needs to run on.

So, very efficient. What about memory capacity? Okay, a petabyte, 10 followed by 15 zeros. Okay, that's a petabyte, that's a huge number. We're more familiar with the term gigabyte, so that's a million gigabytes.

So, that's what has been calculated to be the storage capacity of the human brain. Phenomenal, how memories are stored. So, this portion that's put into red, and primarily red, but also blue, is the portion where we do our memory storage.

Hippocampus refers to that lower part, the part that's kind of like, looks like the approaching the end of a tail. Hippo refers to horse, campus, sea monster, and it was named after seahorses, because it looked like a sea monster, not necessarily in size, but in character.

And so, it's been observed through monitoring electrical activity in the brain, that the unfolding of specific rhythms during sleep goes on while memory is being consolidated. So, here is showing the different types of brainwave activity with what's going on, whether it be being awake, using the brain at the top line, or awake and resting, and you see it's slowing down there, or sleeping, it's really slowing down, or in deep sleep, now super slowing down.

So, these are the different types of waves we see, electrical activity in these different states, whether it be very active mentally, awake, resting, sleeping, or deep sleep. So, in the past, electrodes were individually attached to these various parts of the head to pick up the electrical activity.

Well, technology has now produced these caps, where the electrodes are all in the cap, and so now you just slip on the cap, it's so much easier to use, takes far less time to set the person up to do the study.

But now, we have something that provides even more precise information, and these are very small electrodes you see here, you could just barely see the wires there next to the edge of the finger. Well, in patients who have had severe seizure disorders, which would not be successfully treated by pharmacy, by drugs, these patients were in such bad shape that they consented to having electrodes, like I showed you on the previous slide, to be embedded in the brain to deal with a part of the brain that was the source of the seizure activity.

So, in these patients, we have these deeply embedded electrodes. Well, not only can they be used to abort a seizure, but they also can be used to monitor the electrical activity of that person's brain when seizures are not occurring, as you see here, these deeply embedded electrodes.

So, this has been used to gather the information that I showed you on that previous slide, and also to show you here, in diagrammatic fashion, these patterns of the brainwave activity, electrical activity, when the person is in these various sleep states.

And, at the very bottom, you see the hippocampal ripple in the lavender-purple color there. The hippocampus, remember, is the part of the brain where memories are consolidated. So, they were able to use this to show the activity of the brain filing away memories, consolidating, filing memories away, to be able to keep them for long periods of time while sleeping.

So, that's one of the purposes of sleep, is not only to rest us physically, but also deal with the events of the day and file them away for memory storage. So, here's a representation of this business of these neurons, and how this, where this happens.

So, remember, I mentioned those boundary cells that say, okay, this is the beginning of a particular memory, and then when that event occurs and it finishes, then the boundary cells say, okay, this is the end of that particular memory.

So, this is how we can isolate these things, so we can remember things separately, and not have to file or go through a big long list before we can find what it is we want to remember. We can go directly to that particular memory that we wish to recall.

Then, there are also these time cells that place a time stamp on these memories, so we know when that beginning and when that end is. So, that way, we can recall these things in appropriate chronological order, if we so desire.

All right, so this is very recent, just from June of this year. There is this particular protein called the KIBRA protein, and that's an acronym from Kidney and Brain Expressed Protein. This protein has an interesting task.

It works with other proteins to glue together these memory synapses, so that they become long-term memory. Now, see, we don't want to remember everything that ever happens. Some things we just need for short-term memory, and then we're done with it.

And we don't need to clutter our brain or our awareness with all these other memories that just have momentary meaning, and then they become inconsequential. So, this protein works with others to make the synapses to glue in the long-term memories, the ones we need to hang on to.

And so, it works with these other proteins here to accomplish this task. Now, this red one I'm showing you here maintains the KIBRA, the green one. So, this is like a maintenance truck here, who comes with tools and makes sure that the green KIBRA protein is kept in working order, so that your memory doesn't fade, so you don't lose your memory.

I think this is astounding to learn how this works. Absolutely astounding. And there's no way that this system, along with so much of what I've already talked about, can just randomly evolve by chance events in small stages over long periods of time.

It's just not possible. And so, if some other molecules come along that damage the KIBRA, green protein here, then this protein kinase, Zeta here, deals with that and keeps the green, the KIBRA protein, functioning properly.

Astounding. Well, from Ephesians chapter 2, the God who is rich in mercy because of His great love with which He loved us, even when we were dead in trespasses, made us alive together with Christ by grace.

You have been saved. So, this is an example on a molecular level of the grace that God shows us by giving us these maintenance systems. And there are many, many, many more maintenance systems. I'm just talking about this one particular example in this particular setting.

Hormones, Cerebrospinal Fluid, and the Brain's Protective Systems

Master secretor of hormones and cerebrospinal fluid. We just say CSF, cerebrospinal fluid. This is that fluid I was mentioning that bathes the brain, that protects it. So, that's all I want to say about that.

It secretes that fluid, and I've already mentioned that it does the protection, giving it shockwave protection. And I just want to mention these various categories of hormones that are made, some of which are proteins, by the brain.

The brain makes a very large number of different kinds of hormones. The pineal gland here, that very small tiny thing, very, very tiny, shaped like a pine cone, that's why it's called the pineal gland, secretes melatonin.

And some of you may be familiar with that, especially if you use it to deal with jet lag after flights that cross multiple time zones. So, melatonin involves our sleep cycle and the coordination of sleep with darkness.

And the hypothalamus here, this very small part of the brain that is sitting just above the pituitary gland, secretes these various hormones which, in turn, affect the pituitary gland as well, causing it to have its hormones secreted.

So, many of these are stimulating hormones for the pituitary, but not all of them, but most of them are. And all these have all sorts of various effects. And I could spend several hours talking about these hormones, but the only point I want to make is that the brain is responsible for all of these.

And it's astounding how in the world someone can think that all of this happened by random chance events is astounding. And here's another category. So, there's all sorts of these things. Another one, irisin.

Okay, so, a little more about the cerebral spinal fluid. So, this space in the middle of the three layers of the membranes that encase the brain within the skull, inside the skull, then these three membranes, the middle one is called arachnoid because it's spider web-like.

Arachno refers to spider. So, spider-like arachnoid under the spider-like space is where the cerebral spinal fluid sits after it's been secreted by those ependymal cells in the ventricles. And so, you see here in the central part of the brain, the blue curved structure represents two of the ventricles, the lateral ventricles.

And so, the fluid is secreted there, flows into the third ventricle you see in the very center of that structure, and then down through a duct to the fourth ventricle, and then on down just to bathe the spinal cord, and also to surround the brain, and bathe, and protect the brain.

So, the chord plexus refers to these ependymal cells, collectively, where they secrete the fluid. And so, there you see that, as I mentioned, the flow from one chamber to another through ducts or canals, and then on down to the spinal cord, and bathing the brain there with that purple layer, and on down.

And so, here again are those ependymal cells, excuse me, secreting this fluid. And this fluid does indeed provide nutrients to the cells with which the fluid comes in contact on the outside of the brain, outside of the spinal cord as well.

All right, I'm skipping these other parts because of time restraints, constraints. So, let's get to multi-dimensional processing, which is mind-blowing all in itself. All right, so this is what provides the link between the structure of the brain and the processing of the information that we are receiving constantly.

And it's very different than in computers. So, one line is a dimension, a single dimension. Two dimensions, then, are length times width, giving area. So, that's two dimensions. So, that would be, for example, so many square centimeters versus so many just centimeters of length of the line.

At a third dimension, now we have width, length, and depth. So, now it's cubic centimeters, volume taking up space. Five dimensions, you'd say, what? Seven dimensions, huh? Eleven dimensions. All right, so what this is attempting to show here is that different parts of the brain for different particular processing actions in different combinations are employed in temporary multi-dimensional structures, so far identified up to 11 dimensions.

And you say, how is this? All right, I'm going to give you this analogy here of these various sandcastles being built and torn down. And you see they all have different shapes, different dimensions, and so this each one would be a computational act.

So, this is the multi-dimensional processing. I hope this analogy makes that more clear and makes sense for you. All right, biophotons. Well, most everybody's familiar with photons from sunlight that plants respond to because of the photopigments, like chlorophyll and other photopigments, that receive the energy from the photons and convert it into chemical energy to be able to produce glucose and other molecules that the plants make.

Biophoton refers to not that photosynthetic activity, but rather animal cells that are producing, or not just animal, but animal and plant cells that are producing the photons themselves, not receiving the photons from the sun or from some other source of light, such as a lamp or some other oil burning lamp or an electrical lamp.

No, these photons are generated by the organism from within. So, those are what biophotons are. Now, here what I'm showing you is a review, a reminder, or maybe an introduction to how that electrical signal travels from the soma, the body of the neuron, down its length to the very tips of those synapses, where those connections are with the other nerves or muscle cells or glands.

So, this is a matter of an alternating of the charge, the positive charge or negative charge, in the membrane, I should say on the membrane, that surrounds the cell, the axon, within that myelin sheath, that insulating sheath.

So, you see here in the green part at the left, in that rectangle, that there is a positive charge on the inside. And so, there's a negative charge on the outer part of that membrane. And what's happening as this electrical signal is going along the axon, you see here at the right-hand side, this channel for potassium to go out and a channel for sodium to go in to the cell through the membrane.

And that membrane has kind of a brownish color there. And so, it's the flux of these ions, these potassium and sodium ions, that leads to the alternating of the charge as it goes down the axon, as it goes its length.

So, this is called depolarization, so that there is a change in the charge, which you see there, it's depolarized. And then, repolarization. So, you see where it's repolarized, then it's now negative charge inside the membrane.

And so, this alternating of going from positive inside with depolarization, back to negative inside, repolarization, moves along the axis of the neuron, of the axon, from the soma down to the synapses at the other end.

So, this is an electrical, you could say, an electrical wave of the switching from positive to negative and back to positive inside, like so. All right, so that's how the signal is sent down electrically, like so.

So, that's there, you see that wave. I'm going to do that again, so you can make sure you get the side of that. So, that's how that electrical signal alternates, positive, negative, inside, outside. And that's what triggers that calcium channel I showed you earlier at the end of this thing, which then allows and triggers the vesicles to dump out the neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Okay, all of that is to let you know what we've known about for quite some time, quite a long time. That is not about the biophoton. This is now something in addition to the biophoton. I mean, in addition to that, which is the biophoton.

So, here is an image taken, excuse me, I'm going to wet my whistle. This is an image taken with cells that were put in a special environment, so that it would be dark, so we could visualize these biophotons that were being produced by the cells.

And so, we now understand that these biophotons are used to communicate as well, in addition to that electrical system of communicating. And so, now we see that even plants create biophotons. This is totally different than the light that they receive from the sun.

Well, not only do some plants do this, but our kidneys do this as well, and so does our brain. So, question is, well, why did God design this? Why is the brain doing this? Okay, so here you're seeing, when it says action potential, that's referring to that electrical system I just showed you, of the message going from the body, the soma of the neuron, to where those synapses are, to connect with the subsequent cell, whether it be nerve, muscle, or gland.

So, that's the forward action potential. That's sending the information onward to get something accomplished. All right, in our cells, we have these little special organelles, tiny organelles inside the cells.